Anand N, Kollef MH. The alphabet soup of pneumonia: CAP, HAP, HCAP, NHAP, and VAP. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2009 Feb;30(1):3-9. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1119803. PMID: 19199181
Abrahamian FM, Deblieux PM, Emerman CL, et al. Health care-associated pneumonia: identification and initial management in the ED. Am J Emerg Med. 2008 Jul;26(Suppl 6):001-11. doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2008.03.015. PMID: 18603170
American Thoracic Society. Hospital-acquired pneumonia in adults: diagnosis, assessment of severity, initial antimicrobial therapy, and preventive strategies. A consensus statement, American Thoracic Society, November 1995. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996 May;153(5):1711-1725. PMID: 8630626
American Thoracic Society; Infectious Diseases Society of America. Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005 Feb;171(4):388-416. PMID: 15699079
Committee for the Japanese Respiratory Society Guidelines in Management of Respiratory. Antibacterial therapy of hospital-acquired pneumonia. Respirology. 2004 Mar;9(Suppl 1):S16-S24. PMID: 14989726
Infectious Diseases Society of Taiwan, Taiwan Society of Pulmonary and Critical Medicine, et al. Guidelines on antimicrobial therapy of pneumonia in adults in Taiwan, revised 2006. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2007 Jun;40(3):279-283. PMID: 17639172
Fiel S. Guidelines and critical pathways for severe hospital-acquired pneumonia. Chest. 2001 Feb;119(Suppl 2):412S-418S. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/. PMID: 11171778
Kieninger AN, Lipsett PA. Hospital-acquired pneumonia: pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment. Surg Clin North Am. 2009 Apr;89(2):439-461. doi: 10.1016/j.suc.2008.11.001. PMID: 19281893
Markewitz BA, Mayer J, Sud PR, et al. Treatment of hospital-acquired pneumonia. Semin Respir Infect. 2000 Sep;15(3):248-257. PMID: 11052425
Song JH; Asian Hospital Acquired Pneumonia Working Group. Treatment recommendations of hospital-acquired pneumonia in Asian countries: first consensus report by the Asian HAP Working Group. Am J Infect Control. 2008 May;36(4)(Suppl):S83-S92. doi: 10.1016/j.ajic.2007.01.015. PMID: 18468550
Masterton RG, Galloway A, French G, et al. Guidelines for the management of hospital-acquired pneumonia in the UK: report of the working party on hospital-acquired pneumonia of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2008 Jul;62(1):005-34. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkn162. PMID: 18445577
Mandell LA, Wunderink R. Pneumonia. In: Fauci AS, Braunwald E, Kasper DL, et al, eds. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. 17th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2008
Infectious Diseases Society of Thailand, Chest Society of Thailand, Critical Care Society of Thailand, Infection Control Society of Thailand. Thai clinical practice guidelines for management and prevention of adults with hospital acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia [draft]. http://thai-medical-guidelines.blogspot.com/2010/03/guideline-vap.html. May 2009
Rotstein C, Evans G, Born A, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for hospital-acquired pneumonia and ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol. 2008 Jan;19(1):19-53. PMID: 19145262
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Pneumonia: diagnosis and management of community- and hospital-acquired pneumonia in adults. NICE clinical guideline 191. NICE. http://www.nice.org.uk/. Dec 2014. Accessed 21 Apr 2015.
Chou CC, Shen CF, Chen SJ, et al; Infectious Diseases Society of Taiwan; Taiwan Society of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine; Medical Foundation in Memory of Dr. Deh-Lin Cheng; Foundation of Professor Wei-Chuan Hsieh for Infectious Diseases Research and Education; CY Lee’s Research Foundation for Pediatric Infectious Diseases and Vaccines; 4th Guidelines Recommendations for Evidence-based Antimicrobial agents use in Taiwan (GREAT) working group. Recommendations and guidelines for the treatment of pneumonia in Taiwan. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2018 Dec. doi: 10.1016/j.jmii.2018.11.004. PMID: 30612923
Kalil AC, Metersky ML, Klompas M, et al. Management of adults with hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia: 2016 clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Thoracic Society. Clin Infect Dis. 2016 Sep;63(5):e61-e111. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciw353. Accessed 04 Jul 2019. PMID: 27418577
Klompas M, Branson R, Eichenwald EC, et al. Strategies to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia in acute care hospitals: 2014 update. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2014 Aug;35(8):915-936. doi: 10.1086/677144. Accessed 23 Jan 2019
Landelle C, Pittet D. Chapter 33: Mechanical ventilation. In: International Society for Infectious Diseases. Guide to Infection Control in the Hospital. International Society for Infectious Diseases; 2018 Feb. https://www.isid.org.
Torres A, Niederman MS, Chastre J, et al. International ERS/ESICM/ESCMID/ALAT guidelines for the management of hospital-acquired pneumonia and ventilator-associated pneumonia: Guidelines for the management of hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP)/ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) of the European Respiratory Society (ERS), European Society of Intensive Care Medicine (ESICM), European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) and Asociación Latinoamericana del Tórax (ALAT). Eur Respir J. 2017 Sep;50(3). doi: 10.1183/13993003.00582-2017. PMID: 28890434
Klompas M. Epidemiology, pathogenesis, microbiology, and diagnosis of hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults. UpToDate. https://www.uptodate.com. 06 Jul 2020. Accessed 10 Jul 2020.
Klompas M. Risk factors and prevention of hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults. UpToDate. https://www.uptodate.com. 02 Jul 2020. Accessed 10 Jul 2020.
Klompas M. Treatment of hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults. UpToDate. https://www.uptodate.com. 09 Jul 2020. Accessed 9 Jul 2020.
Kollef MH. Clinical presentation and diagnostic evaluation of ventilator-associated pneumonia. UpToDate. https://www.uptodate.com. 25 Feb 2020.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Pneumonia (hospital acquired): antimicrobial prescribing. NICE. https://www.nice.org.uk/. 16 Sep 2019.
Sethi S. Hospital-acquired pneumonia. Merck Manual professional version. https://www.merckmanuals.com/. Mar 2019. Accessed 10 Jul 2020.
Sethi S. Ventilator-associated pneumonia. Merck Manual professional version. https://www.merckmanuals.com/. Mar 2019. Accessed 10 Jul 2020.
Infectious Diseases Society of America. Guidelines on the diagnosis of COVID-19. IDSA. https://www.idsociety.org/. 06 May 2020. Accessed 30 Sep 2020.
Jean SS, Chang YC, Lin WC, et al. Epidemiology, treatment, and prevention of nosocomial bacterial pneumonia. J Clin Med. 2020 Jan;9(1):275. doi: 10.3390/jcm9010275. Accessed 30 Sep 2020. PMID: 31963877
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). COVID-19 rapid guideline: antibiotics for pneumonia in adults in hospital. NICE. https://www.nice.org.uk/. 01 May 2020. Accessed 30 Sep 2020.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Pneumonia (hospital-acquired): antimicrobial prescribing. NICE. https://www.nice.org.uk/. 16 Sep 2019.
National Institutes of Health (NIH). COVID-19 treatment guidelines: General considerations. NIH. https://www.nih.gov/. 30 Jul 2020. Accessed 30 Sep 2020.
Shi Y, Huang Y, Zhang TT, et al. Chinese guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of hospital-acquired pneumonia and ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults (2018 Edition). J Thorac Dis. 2019 Jun;11(6):2581-2616. doi: 10.21037/jtd.2019.06.09. PMID: 31372297
World Health Organization (WHO). Clinical management of severe acute respiratory infection (SARI) when COVID-19 disease is suspected. WHO. https://www.who.int/. 13 Mar 2020.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Antimicrobial prescribing: meropenem with vaborbactam. NICE. https://www.nice.org.uk/. 20 Nov 2019.
Klompas M. Treatment of hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults. UpToDate. https://www.uptodate.com/. Aug 2022.
Magiorakos AP, Srinivasan A, Carey RB, et al. Multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant and pandrug-resistant bacteria: an international expert proposal for interim standard definitions for acquired resistance. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2012 Mar;18(3):268-281. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2011.03570.x. PMID: 21793988
Wang CH, Hsieh YH, Powers ZM, et al. Defeating antibiotic-resistant bacteria: exploring alternative therapies for a post-antibiotic era. Int J Mol Sci. 2020 Feb;21(3):1061. doi: 10.3390/ijms21031061. PMID: 32033477
Fartoukh M, Maitre B, Honoré S, Cerf C, Zahar JR, Brun-Buisson C. Diagnosing pneumonia during mechanical ventilation: the clinical pulmonary infection score revisited. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003 Jul;168(2):173-179. doi: 10.1164/rccm.200212-1449OC. PMID: 12738607
Lauzier F, Ruest A, Cook D, et al; Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. The value of pretest probability and modified clinical pulmonary infection score to diagnose ventilator-associated pneumonia. J Crit Care. 2008 Mar;23(1):50-57. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2008.01.006. PMID: 18359421
Tsuji BT, Pogue JM, Zavascki AP, et al. International consensus guidelines for the optimal use of the polymyxins: Endorsed by the American College of Clinical Pharmacy (ACCP), European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID), Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), International Society for Anti-infective Pharmacology (ISAP), Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM), and Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists (SIDP). Pharmacotherapy. 2019 Jan;39(1):10-39. doi: 10.1002/phar.2209. PMID: 30710469
Klompas M, Branson R, Cawcutt K, et al. Strategies to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia, ventilator-associated events, and nonventilator hospital-acquired pneumonia in acute-care hospitals: 2022 Update. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2022 Jun;43(6):687-713. doi: 10.1017/ice.2022.88. PMID: 35589091
Khan MA, Bajwa A, Hussain ST. Pneumonia: recent updates on diagnosis and treatment. Microorganisms. 2025 Feb;13(3):522. doi: 10.3390/microorganisms13030522. PMID: 40142415
Dessajan J, Timsit JF. Impact of multiplex PCR in the therapeutic management of severe bacterial pneumonia. Antibiotics (Basel). 2024 Jan;13(1):95. doi: 10.3390/antibiotics13010095. PMID: 38247654
Gentile I, Giuliano S, Corcione S, et al. Current role of ceftobiprole in the treatment of hospital-acquired and community-acquired pneumonia: expert opinion based on literature and real-life experiences. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2025 Feb;23(2-4):217-225. doi: 10.1080/14787210.2025.2461552. PMID: 39882832
Zheng N, Zhu D, Han Y. Procalcitonin and C-reactive protein perform better than the neutrophil/lymphocyte count ratio in evaluating hospital acquired pneumonia. BMC Pulm Med. 2020 Jun;20(11):166. doi: 10.1186/s12890-020-01207-6. PMID: 32527243
Dandan Y, Shi W, Yang Y, et al. Antimicrobial activity of ceftobiprole and comparator agents when tested against gram-positive and -negative organisms collected across China (2016-2018). BMC Microbiol. 2022 Nov;22(1):282. doi: 10.1186/s12866-022-02699-4. PMID: 36435810
Elkhashab A, Swelem R, Alla A, et al. Etiological and prognostic values of procalcitonin in hospital-acquired pneumonia. Egyptian Journal of Chest Diseases and Tuberculosis. 2014;63:201-206.
Iqbal M, Pranggono EH. Bacterial pattern and patient’s age on procalcitonin in community and hospital acquired pneumonia. Indonesian Journal of Clinical Pathology and Medical Laboratory. 2015 Mar;21(2):153-157. Accessed 19 Jun 2025
Ling L, Lai CKC, Rhee C. Bacterial multiplex polymerase chain reaction tests for the diagnosis and management of pneumonia: ready for prime time?. Thorax. 2025:thorax-2024-222297. doi: 10.1136/thorax-2024-222297. PMID: 40473414
Pfaller MA, Flamm RK, Mendes RE, et al. Ceftobiprole activity against Gram-positive and -negative pathogens collected from the United States in 2006 and 2016. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2018;63(1):e01566-18. Accessed 19 Jun 2025
Travlos A, Bakakos A, Vlachos KF, et al. C-reactive protein as a predictor of survival and length of hospital stay in community-acquired pneumonia. J Pers Med. 2022 Oct;12(10):1710. doi: 10.3390/jpm12101710. Accessed 19 Jun 2025. PMID: 36294849