What is metacognition?
Metacognition can be understood as a powerful yet often overlooked cognitive ability that allows individuals to manage their thinking processes effectively, even within everyday constraints. In simple terms, it is “thinking about thinking,” a concept defined by the Merriam-Webster Dictionary as the awareness or analysis of one’s own learning or cognitive processes.1 At its core, it involves awareness of how we learn, decide, and solve problems, and the ability to regulate these processes to achieve better outcomes.
This capacity plays a central role in how we navigate daily life. From deciding how to approach a task to choosing when to persist or change strategies, metacognition quietly guides our actions. It is one of the most advanced forms of human cognition, requiring both self-awareness and control over mental processes—capabilities that remain challenging even for advanced artificial systems. Metacognition encompasses two domains: metacognitive knowledge, a person’s awareness of their own thinking abilities, and metacognitive regulation, the process by which individuals direct their thinking to achieve desired goals.
Core components and how they work
Metacognition can be broadly divided into three interrelated components: evaluating the demands of a task relative to one’s abilities, planning and implementing appropriate strategies, and continuously monitoring performance to refine future approaches. When these elements are consciously applied, individuals can significantly enhance both their learning efficiency and overall decision-making.
In educational contexts, metacognition is widely recognised as a foundational skill for both teaching and learning. Effective learners actively assess their strengths and limitations in relation to clearly defined goals. They select and apply strategies purposefully, while also reviewing their progress to determine whether adjustments are necessary. This ongoing cycle of planning, monitoring, and evaluation supports continuous improvement and enhanced skill development.
Types of metacognitive learners
In any given cohort of students, there are four types of metacognitive learners: tacit, aware, strategic, and reflective.3 “Tacit” learners are unaware of their metacognitive skills and merely accept that they know or do not know something, without considering strategies to advance their knowledge. “Aware” learners recognise some of the thinking they use when searching for evidence to support their study, but this is unplanned, never deliberate, and mostly random.
“Strategic” learners organise their thinking by planning their study, their search for supporting evidence, and their problem-solving. “Reflective” learners, on the other hand, are not only strategic in their thinking but also take time to reflect on their learning strategy, assess its usefulness, and consider alternative approaches that could improve both the speed of knowledge acquisition and the duration of retention.
The benefits of strong metacognitive skills
The importance of reflective thinking becomes particularly evident in the development of expert learners. Such individuals do not rely solely on effort or repetition; instead, they draw on their awareness of both the task and their own thinking patterns. By doing so, they can choose appropriate resources, track their progress, and adapt strategies as needed.
As highlighted by researchers Peggy A. Ertmer and Timothy J. Newby, expert learners are distinguished by their ability to be strategic, self-regulated, and reflective.2 For instance, when encountering a difficult text, a learner may recognise a lack of understanding, reread the material, and then evaluate whether further review or alternative resources are required—an iterative process that exemplifies metacognitive control in action.
Since its emergence as a field of study in the 1970s, metacognition has been consistently linked to improved learning outcomes. Research suggests that individuals with strong metacognitive skills are better equipped to make decisions, adapt to changing circumstances, and regulate their emotional responses. Neurologically, these processes are associated with activity in the prefrontal cortex—the region of the brain responsible for reasoning, planning, and behavioural regulation. Through this engagement, individuals can approach complex tasks more systematically, adjust strategies when necessary, and reduce cognitive strain.
Developing metacognitive skills
Importantly, metacognition is not a fixed trait but a skill that can be developed over time. As researcher Brendan Conway-Smith notes, mental training shares similarities with physical training: consistent practice leads to measurable improvement.4 Strengthening metacognitive ability requires deliberate reflection on one’s capabilities, the complexity of tasks, and the effectiveness of chosen strategies. It also involves allocating time and effort wisely, seeking support when needed, and remaining flexible in the face of challenges.4
To cultivate these skills, learners at all levels—students, educators, and professionals alike—can benefit from regularly practising self-questioning. Key considerations include whether the task is fully understood, whether the chosen approach is appropriate, and whether progress aligns with intended goals. Being willing to make timely adjustments can prevent wasted effort and improve overall efficiency. Over time, this disciplined approach not only enhances learning outcomes but also supports clearer thinking, better decision-making, and greater emotional balance.
A practical framework for reflection
A practical way to develop metacognitive skills is by employing structured reflection at different stages of any task5:
Planning: What is my objective? What is my timeframe? What resources are available?
Monitoring: Am I following my intended plan? Am I meeting interim targets? Do I need to adjust my approach?
Evaluating: Have I achieved my objective? What have I learned about my strengths and limitations? How can these insights help modify my future plans?
Conclusion
Expertise in any domain involves gaining greater control over performance, and in this context, metacognitive skill reflects the degree of control individuals exert over their own thinking. As skills develop, learners typically move from consciously applying rules to performing tasks more intuitively, with greater speed and accuracy. Through regular engagement in planning, monitoring, and evaluating their learning, individuals can cultivate a more intentional and effective approach. In this way, metacognition shifts from a theoretical capacity to a practical strength that supports ongoing development and long-term improvement, optimising potential for peak achievement.
References:
1. “Metacognition.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/metacognition. Accessed 18 April 2026.
2. Ertmer, P.A., Newby, T.J. The expert learner: Strategic, self-regulated, and reflective. Instructional Science 1996;24:1–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00156001.
3. Perkins D. Smart Schools: Better Thinking and Learning for Every Child (1992). New York: Free Press.
4. Conway-Smith, B. Metacognition as a domain of skill. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society 2025;47. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4x2979nr.
5. Schraw, G. Promoting general metacognitive awareness. Instructional Science 1998;26:113–125. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1003044231033.
Note: Professor Dr Bernard Fanthome is Head of Surgery Unit at AIMST University, Bedong, Kedah. 
